Journal of Agricultural Economics & Development

Abstract Introduction The rapid growth of the global population, ongoing climate change, and limited production resources have intensified concerns about food security. Sustainable food production systems, particularly grazing-based livestock production, play a vital role in addressing these challenges. However, these systems face numerous obstacles in developing countries and arid/semi-arid regions, including heavy reliance on natural resources, climate change impacts, and drought vulnerability, lower efficiency compared to other production methods, high greenhouse gas emissions, and competition for agricultural land allocated to feed production. Additionally, high operational costs and susceptibility to livestock diseases have significantly reduced both the profitability and sustainability of these systems. In Iran, livestock production systems remain predominantly traditional and are evaluated as unsustainable in terms of environmental, economic, and social indicators. Kermanshah Province, with approximately 2,500 rangeland systems and 63,000 rural and nomadic households, represents one of the most important livestock production hubs in western Iran. However, the presence of 1.4 million livestock units exceeding rangeland carrying capacity, combined with significant climatic changes over the past three decades (including rising temperatures, declining precipitation, and intensifying droughts), has made this region an ideal case study for examining sustainability challenges in livestock production systems. This study aims to identify and analyze the challenges facing livestock production systems in relation to climate change impacts in Kermanshah Province. Materials and Methods This research was conducted in Kermanshah Province, located in the middle part of the Zagros Mountains. Kermanshah Province, as one of the livestock breeding hubs in the Middle Zagros, plays an important role in providing livestock feed from rangelands. The province contains approximately 2,500 rangeland systems supporting about 63,000 rural and nomadic households. These households primarily rely on rangeland grazing to meet their livestock feed requirements. Based on forage production capacity, the rangelands can sustainably support only 1.5 million livestock units, while the current livestock population exceeds this capacity by approximately 1.4 million units. Recent studies indicate significant climatic changes in the province over recent decades, particularly increased drought intensity and duration, which have directly impacted natural forage availability and threatened the sustainability of livestock production systems. Methodologically, this quantitative, applied research employed a survey approach. The study population consisted of 140 experts and specialists in livestock production and natural resources management from Kermanshah Province, with 131 participants studied through census method (with 93 % rate of return) based on their research and practical experience in livestock production systems and associated challenges. Data were collected using a researcher-developed questionnaire, designed through literature review and interviews with livestock production experts. Content validity was assessed by agricultural and natural resources experts from Kermanshah and faculty members from the University of Tehran's Agricultural Management Department. Discriminant validity was confirmed using average variance extracted (AVE). Reliability was evaluated through Cronbach's alpha and composite reliability. Data processing utilized SPSS 27 and Smart PLS 3 software packages. Results and Discussion The findings revealed that the most critical sustainability challenges for grazing-based livestock systems in Kermanshah Province were, in order of significance: environmental (β=0.756), economic (β=0.683), managerial (β=0.669), technical (β=0.593), social (β=0.563), and legal challenges (β=0.454). Environmental challenges emerged as the foremost sustainability barrier, underscoring their pivotal role in determining the overall sustainability of pastoral livestock systems according to expert assessments. Among environmental factors, climate variability and drought (factor loading=0.858) were identified as the most severe environmental challenges. Given that climate change impacts are projected to exacerbate system vulnerability - particularly when combined with rapid population growth and economic development that intensify food demand - these findings highlight the urgent need for adaptive strategies to mitigate climatic effects. Economic challenges represented the second most significant sustainability obstacle. Within this category, high prices for production inputs and animal feed (factor loading = 0.856) emerged as the most prominent economic constraint. This finding reflects the substantial financial burden on pastoralists for procuring inputs and animal feed, which increases production costs and may compromise their capacity for sustainable rangeland utilization. Managerial challenges ranked third, with poor community organization in local associations for coordinated action and inadequate service provision (factor loading=0.837) representing critical management shortcomings. Technical challenges represented another key sustainability barrier, where low productivity of grazing livestock was identified as a fundamental technical constraint. This emphasizes the importance of enhancing livestock productivity to improve overall system efficiency and profitability in the province. Social challenges ranked fifth, with insufficient awareness and knowledge regarding drought management and its impacts on rangelands (factor loading=0.853) being the primary social challenge. This underscores the critical need for educational interventions to improve pastoralists' understanding of drought management and rangeland conservation. Finally, legal challenges (β=0.454) were ranked as the least severe sustainability obstacle. Within this category, insufficient government budgeting and credit allocation for natural resource conservation and rangeland management (factor loading=0.874) emerged as the most significant legal constraint. This hierarchical challenge structure provides valuable insights for prioritizing intervention strategies to enhance the sustainability of grazing-based livestock systems in semi-arid regions. Conclusion Understanding these challenges can contribute to developing practical solutions for enhancing the sustainability of these systems. To improve the sustainability of livestock production systems, several strategies are proposed, including: establishing local cooperatives, enhancing access to technical training, developing innovative technologies, and providing financial support to livestock producers.

Abstract Every year, approximately one-third of the total food produced for human consumption is lost or wasted due to various reasons. This level of wastage has substantial adverse impacts on the environment, economy, and society. Numerous studies have proposed various policies to address the issue of food waste, such as incorporating technology into existing supply chains. However, concerns about their effectiveness and unintended consequences have led researchers to emphasize market-based approaches for waste reduction. The present study was carried out to estimate waste and investigate the potential for developing different marketing channels as market-based approaches to reduce waste in the leafy vegetable supply chain in Kermanshah province. To achieve this purpose, a system dynamics modelling of the waste system in the leafy vegetable supply chain was developed by using the literature review and interviews with experts and stakeholders. The tool for collecting research data was a questionnaire. The statistical population of this study is two groups including 22 experts and 728 actors in the leafy vegetable supply chain. Based on the findings, around 31,000 tonnes (39%) of leafy vegetables are wasted annually across the supply chain. The research scenarios indicate that the establishment of processing industries will effectively decrease the overall waste of leafy vegetables from around 31,000 tons to approximately 20,000 tons annually. Therefore, government initiatives and policies in the field of leafy vegetable exchange in the study area must focus on supporting businesses associated with leafy vegetable processing industries and establishing infrastructure prerequisites for these industries.

Abstract Food production in controlled cultivation areas plays a crucial role in increasing productivity and offsetting supply shortages. Product yields, water consumption, and energy use are the main parameters determining the performance of food production in a greenhouse. Smart technology is an effective solution to improve these parameters. This study aimed to identify the components, challenges, and requirements for the development of smart agriculture in greenhouses. Our case study focused on Tehran province, which encompasses a significant portion of the total greenhouses in Iran. The statistical population consisted of 20 subject-matter experts with research or executive experience in greenhouse automation, selected purposefully. Questionnaires and semi-structured interviews were used in this study to collect data. First, we identified the variables affecting the development of smart agriculture in greenhouses by using a literature review and semi-structured interviews with experts, Then, the experts were asked to evaluate the cross-influence of the identified variables through pairwise comparison. Finally, data analysis was done using MICMAC software. The findings indicate that the identified requirements and challenges have had a significant influence on the lack of smart agriculture in greenhouses. Through network analysis of influence and dependence relationships, it was found that economic requirements and challenges, technical and infrastructural requirements and challenges, legal and regulatory requirements, and institutional requirements were the most influential variables in the development of smart agriculture in Tehran province.

Abstract Introduction
In order to meet the increasing demands of the growing population, it is essential to boost rice production. This not only ensures food security but also helps maintain environmental well-being. To achieve these goals, it is crucial for crop management research to focus on increasing rice yields while minimizing water usage. In Iran, particularly in the Rudbar region, recognizing the significance of rice cultivation in agriculture is of utmost importance. To improve rice field management, various aspects such as water and soil resource management, pest and disease control, nutrition management, sales and marketing strategies, human resources and social capital management, as well as technical and agricultural improvements need to be addressed. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to identify more effective methods for managing the rice fields in Rudbar county, Iran. Materials and Methos Initially, the researchers conducted a comprehensive analysis of available national and international databases to gather background information for the study. This analysis aimed to establish an initial list of components that could contribute to improving the management of rice fields. The statistical population of the study consisted of all 850 rice farmers in Rudbar City. Using the Karjesi-Morgan table, a statistical sample size of 265 participants was estimated, which corresponded to the size of the population. Eventually, 252 questionnaires were collected after distributing them to the participants, resulting in an 88% response rate. The opinions of faculty members from Tehran University's Department of Agricultural Management and Development were sought to assess the content validity of the questionnaire which was finally confirmed. To assess the reliability or internal consistency of the questionnaire, Cronbach's alpha coefficient was calculated for each of its components. All coefficients were found to be above 0.7, indicating good reliability of the study tool. The data obtained from the questionnaires was subjected to statistical analysis using the LISREL 8.8 software. A confirmatory factor analysis model was applied to examine the data. The reliability of the indicators loaded on each structure was evaluated using the t statistic. Indicators with values exceeding the critical limit of 1.96 were considered to have the required precision for measuring the relevant structure. Additionally, significant factor loadings were determined by extracting values greater than 0.5 from the factor loadings. It is important to note that Cronbach's alpha (with values higher than 0.7) was utilized to assess the reliability of the constructs.
 
Results and Discussion
The research findings highlighted several significant factors that have a substantial impact on improving the management of rice farms. These factors encompassed various aspects, including water and soil management, human resources and social capital, nutrition management, pest, disease, and weed management, technical and agricultural management, as well as sales and marketing management. Regarding water and soil management, the study emphasized the importance of optimal application of water resources, consideration of water quality, sediment control, and prevention of toxins and sewage from entering rice fields. Given the submerged nature of some rice stalks and the perpetually swampy conditions of rice fields, it is crucial to ensure the quality of incoming water and prevent the presence of mud and sediments. In terms of nutrition management, the research findings stressed the significance of using fertilizers effectively to enhance rice productivity. This involved post-planting strengthening, adherence to appropriate fertilizer consumption guidelines, and the utilization of plant and animal residues. Nutrition management, along with pest and disease control, played a vital role in successful rice field management. Another factor contributing to effective rice field management was the control of pests, diseases, and weeds. The study highlighted the benefits of employing an integrated approach to manage rice plant diseases and pests, which yielded better outcomes. The research findings also emphasized the role of technical and agricultural management in enhancing rice field operations. This included the use of transplanting machinery and improved seeds, mechanization of cultivation activities, and the application of fertilizer spraying machinery. These measures underscored the need for innovation in rice fields, emphasizing the importance of mechanization and the utilization of modern agricultural instruments. It was recommended that rice producers embrace technological advancements to optimize their technical and agricultural practices. Furthermore, the management of human resources and social capital played a significant role in rice field management. This encompassed fostering the growth of social capital, enhancing knowledge and skills, and utilizing mass media for skill and career development. The findings suggested that increasing cooperation, trust, and organization among rice farmers could be a strategy to revive social capital and enhance management practices. Lastly, the study highlighted important features of rice sales and marketing, such as employing an appropriate distribution system, excluding profit-seekers from the marketing cycle, and establishing regular customer relationships. Overall, the research findings emphasized the importance of addressing various factors, including water and soil management, nutrition management, pest and disease control, technical and agricultural management, human resources and social capital, as well as sales and marketing management, in order to effectively manage rice fields. Implementing these strategies would contribute to improved productivity and sustainable management practices in rice cultivation.
 
Conclusion
The findings of the study indicated the significance of several measures to improve the management of rice fields. These measures included the utilization of additional fertilizers and adherence to fertilizer usage guidelines, as well as the adoption of mechanized planting and harvesting equipment. It was also recommended to provide skill training programs for rice farmers and introduce online marketing platforms to facilitate the sale of rice. Furthermore, the study highlighted the importance of establishing specialized communication channels and implementing a contract system for rice production and sales through dedicated local organizations. This approach would ensure efficient coordination and enhance the management of rice fields. Additionally, private businesses were recognized for introducing new technologies, while the government played a crucial role in providing the necessary infrastructure and platforms to support rice field management. Improving the skills of rice farmers, especially in terms of market innovations, was identified as a key factor in enhancing the management of rice fields. This aspect should be considered alongside institutional and policy-making advancements to ensure comprehensive improvements in rice field management.
 

Abstract Abstract
This correlational-survery research was conducted with the main objective of investigating viewpoints of farmers of Markazi district of Karaj towards participation in community supported agriculture. The statistical population of the study consisted of farmers in Markazi district of Karaj (N=1598) out of which 117 people were selected as sample using Cochran Formula. In order to enhance the representativeness of the sample, finally the sample size was increased upto 130 farmers. simple random sampling was apllied for the study. The tool of study was a questionnaire which was validated by getting judgment of some experts (faculty members of the Department of agricultural Extension and Education in the university of Tehran). In order to estimate the reliability of the different scales of the questionnaire, Cronbach Alpha coefficient was used. The values ranged from 0.7 to 0.9 which indicated that the tool of study was reliable. The data were analyzed by SPSS-Win. The findings showed that the main motivation of the farmers for participation in community-supported agriculture was to securing financial sources and marketing of their produces. The results of correlation analysis revealed that there were significant positive relationships between the level of interest to receive citizen's financial support with the variables viz., annual income, family labor use and the numbers of citizens' visits to farms at 1 percent level. The same variable was significantly and positively correlated with dependency to residential area and educational level at 5 % level. In addition, the results of Kruskal Wallis test indicated that there were significance differences among different categories of farmers from various residential areas in terms of interest to receive citizen's financial support and tendency to cooperate with citizens of diverse income level, satisfaction level of farming income and the length of plantation at 5 % level.

Abstract Abstract
Although farmers always have been seriously depended on the banks for their capital formation, but the more important issue, which has been less considered, is to investigate how the agricultural loans are spent by farmers and to explain principles of productive use of the loans. The present research aims to investigate how different groups of farmers spend the loans and to explain the related discriminatory variables. The sample (n=120) was selected through stratified sampling method, from a population including Khoy County farmers who had borrowed agricultural loan during 2002-2007 at least once (N=4592). The results showed that farmers were different from each other in terms of loans' spending behavior because of variables including "type of agricultural loan, use of crops insurance, monitoring times on the quality of loan use, loan amount, and educational level".

JEL classification: Q14

Abstract Sustainability of wheat farming systems depends on various ecological, economic and social factors. Identifying these factors can be most effective to formulating sustainable agricultural analysis policies and strategies. According to this, the purpose of this paper is to identify sustainability factors of wheat cultivation system in Fars province. Statistical population of this research includes all wheat farmers of Fars province. Sample was selected by using multi stage random sampling method and questionnaire was used for data gathering. Validity of questionnaire confirmed by selected experts and researchers of agricultural development, and Coronbach Alpha coefficient (0.77 to 0.94) was used to confirm its reliability. According to descriptive finding of the study on average irrigated farm land for each landholder was 10.29 ha, With 6.23 ha, allocated to wheat cultivation, annually. On average production per hectare were 6.84 ton and average annual income of each wheat farmer was 120 million Rails. From the view point of landholding system 30.34 percent of the farmers are small landholding. About 88.57 percent of farmers were owner of the farm, 22.65 percent have continuous in cultivation and 67.52 percent have rotational farming in wheat cropping. In total 80.3 percent of farmers do not have sufficient professitional knowledge and 90 percent of them do not enjoy an appropriate agricultural support services. In respect of social participation, 55.6 percent of them are in intermediate level and 67.5 percent do not have sufficient satisfaction from agricultural activities. The results of factor analysis showed that, 5 factors of ecological sustainable cultivation activities, Agricultural extension service, social and participation situation and economic factor explained 72.56 percent of sustainability of wheat cultivation system in Fars province

Abstract Abstract
The main purpose of the present study was to investigate personal and professional factors influencing farmers' perception towards problems of agricultural water management in Karaj County The Statistical Population of the study consisted of 5297 farmers in Karaj County out of which 142 farmers were selected as sample using Cochran Formula for determining the sample size and stratified proportionate random sampling technique for reaching the samples. A questionnaire was developed for gathering data and information. It was validated through getting the viewpoints of some faculty members of the Department of agricultural Extension and Education, University of Tehran as well as some staff experts of the Ministries of Jihade-Agriculture and Power. The reliability of the main scale of the questionnaire was approved by Cronbach Alpha Coefficient which was equal to 0.76 indicated the tool of study is reliable. The data were later analyzed by SPSS-win. The results indicated that there was significant and positive relationship between farmers perception towards problems of agricultural water management with their farming experience. In addition, the findings revealed that different groups of farmers classified based on grouping variable such as use of credit, water resources possession, educational level, farming systems, different technologies used for water exploitation were significantly different in terms of perception towards problems of agricultural water management. In addition farmers categorized based on variables such as farming systems and water transfer method were significantly different in terms of facing problems of agricultural water management as showed by Kruskal Wallis. According to an overall conclusion, four factors viz., education, credit, technology and farming system structure are highly influential on reducing problems of agricultural water management.