Agricultural Economics
P. Rezaie; A. Mahmoudi; T. Sharghi
Abstract
Introduction One of the basic needs of the people is to meet food security. Reports indicate that global demand for agricultural goods will increase over the next decade, with a large share of this demand occurring in developing countries. The importance of poultry products in the human diet is ...
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Introduction One of the basic needs of the people is to meet food security. Reports indicate that global demand for agricultural goods will increase over the next decade, with a large share of this demand occurring in developing countries. The importance of poultry products in the human diet is significant because the supply of animal protein in the diet is a key criterion in ensuring food security in society. In fact, poultry is considered one of the most widely consumed protein-rich foods in our country today due to its high production rate, its availability throughout the year and its importance as a white meat. Therefore, considering that East Azerbaijan province, as one of the main center of the poultry industry, has the third place in the closure of broiler chickens compared to the total among the provinces of the country, so this study examines the situation of the poultry industry using chain theory Porter Value aims to analyze the value chain activities of poultry products in order to identify challenges and inadequacies in creating a competitive advantage in East Azerbaijan Province. The value chain of poultry products was based on five components of poultry feed production: mother poultry farms, incubators, laying hens and broiler farms.Material and Methods The statistical population of this study was 63 experts, specialists and poultry industry experts. Due to the limited number of the statistical population, the census method was used to collect data. Data were collected through a questionnaire in 2021, validity was confirmed through a panel of professors and experts in the poultry industry in the province and the reliability of the instrument was assessed through a pilot test. Cronbach's alpha coefficient was obtained from 0.701 to 0.833, which indicates acceptable reliability. SPSS22 and SmartPLS3 software were used for data analysis. Also, in order to level the descriptive findings in terms of low, medium and high levels, ISDM index was used.Result and DiscussionThe average level of activities within the entire chicken value chain in East Azerbaijan province, excluding poultry feed production, was found to be predominantly low and moderate. Specifically, in mother hen farms, the highest frequency (39.7%) was at the low level, followed by the moderate level (38.1%). In the hatchery unit, the highest frequency (41.3%) was at the moderate level, while the poor level accounted for only 7.31%. For broiler farms, the highest frequency (41.3%) was at the moderate level, with 33.3% at the poor level. Similarly, in laying hen farms, the highest frequency (44.4%) was at the moderate level, and the poor level accounted for 31.7%. Only in poultry feed production was the level estimated to be good (36.5%) or moderate (33.3%).Furthermore, significant relationships were observed between certain components of the chicken value chain. Specifically, there was a direct, positive, and significant relationship between poultry feed production factories and laying hen farms. Similarly, the hatchery unit component showed a direct, positive, and significant relationship with laying breeding farms. However, the component of broiler farms did not demonstrate meaningful and effective integration within the provincial-level broiler chicken production. This was due to the lack of significant relationships with the poultry feed production factories and hatchery unit components. Experts in mother poultry farms highlighted weaknesses in government protection policies, inadequate knowledge in feed control, and a lack of research focused on creating favorable conditions for consistent chicken production. These challenges indicated significant obstacles in terms of manpower training, effective research, government support, and optimal production within these units. The analysis of the chicken value chain revealed that only two out of six defined paths showed significant positive relationships: the path between poultry feed production units and laying hen farms, as well as the path between incubation units and laying hen farms. However, the other paths within the chicken value chain, which are expected to play significant roles, did not demonstrate significant positive relationships due to their low and moderate levels. This indicates the existence of challenges within the chicken value chain in East Azerbaijan province.Conclusion The results showed that the components of the chicken value chain in order to create a competitive advantage face serious challenges in the implementation of the main activities and support; So that the level of main activities and support of most of the components involved in this chain was medium and low, and this situation cannot create a competitive advantage for the industry. Considering the key role of support activities on the main activities of each component in the chicken value chain, it is suggested that the necessary measures be taken to strengthen and improve staff training, especially in hen farms, as well as applied research programs. Focus on the research policies of the poultry sector of East Azerbaijan province to respond to the changes in the technologies required by the broiler industry and the pathology of the causes of weakness in the use of technology.
Agricultural Economics
A. Mahmoodi; Y. Azarinfar
Abstract
The main purpose of this study was to investigate the possibility of aggregation different types of pulses as well as sugar, using the single and multiple hypotheses test. The former hypothesis tests include Composite Commodity Theorem (Leontief and Hicks) and Generalized Composite Commodity Theorem ...
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The main purpose of this study was to investigate the possibility of aggregation different types of pulses as well as sugar, using the single and multiple hypotheses test. The former hypothesis tests include Composite Commodity Theorem (Leontief and Hicks) and Generalized Composite Commodity Theorem (GCCT) and the latter hypothesis tests include the Bonferroni, Simes, Holm, and Hochberg procedures and the results of mentioned methods were compared. Data of the period 2006-2018 for this study were obtained from the Statistics Center of Iran..The results of multiple tests of Bonferroni, Simes and Hochberg for different types of pulses showed that with the exception of “mixed pea and bean”, other products can be aggregated into the group of Pulses. Also, based on the results of Bonferroni, Simes, Holm and Hochberg, different types of sugar can be aggregated into the group of Sugar. The results of the individual hypothesis test are not the same for different types of pulses and different types of sugar. In other words, according to Leontief method, the hypothesis of aggregate the different types of beans together was not confirmed, while according to Hicks method, this hypothesis was confirmed. Similarly, according to the Leontief method, the hypothesis of aggregate the different types of sugar together was rejected, while according to the Hicks method, this hypothesis was confirmed. The result of the GCCT showed that all types of pulses (except “other beans”) can be aggregated into the Pulses group. The types of sugar can also be aggregated into the Sugar group according to the generalized composite method. Based on the results, when the number of observations is low, the use of single tests and specifically the GCCT will not show the exactly same results, which confirms Davis (2003) finding that the GCCT does not guarantee proper aggregation of goods. In these cases, multiple tests would be recommended.
Agricultural Economics
M. Bakeshloo; Gh.R. Yavari; A. Mahmoudi; A. Nikoukar; F. Alijani
Abstract
One of the most important economic policies in most countries is to support producers or consumers through subsidies. The category of green subsidies has been proposed in the direction of agricultural development, which is in line with the law on targeted subsidies, but in a real way. Green subsidies ...
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One of the most important economic policies in most countries is to support producers or consumers through subsidies. The category of green subsidies has been proposed in the direction of agricultural development, which is in line with the law on targeted subsidies, but in a real way. Green subsidies belong to farmers and are used to boost business and industry in the agricultural sector. The purpose of this study is to investigate the effects of Iran's accession to the World Trade Organization by applying a simulated green subsidy policy on the variables of employment, investment, and value added in the agricultural sector, which is designed in the form of 20%, 50% and 100% scenarios. The model was calibrated using the social accounting matrix of 2011 and the baseline scenario (0% of green subsidies). GAMS software was used to analyze the data in this research. The results show an increase in employment in the agricultural sector during the effects of Iran's accession to the World Trade Organization and by applying the green subsidy simulation policy, in 20, 50 and 100% scenarios. Also, the implementation of green subsidy policy has led to an increase in investment in the agricultural sector.This is due to the increased production in this sector and as a result, increase in the use of intermediate inputs. The results obtained from the mentioned shocks show that value added in the agricultural sector has an upward trend, which is due to the increase in the use of factors of production in this sector.
S. Esmaili; M. Ghahremanzadeh; A. Mahmoudi; M. Mehrara; Gh.R. Yavari
Abstract
Introduction: Exchange rate and oil prices are the important factors for foreign trade in any country and even fluctuation in these variables will affect the economic and trade growth. The purpose of this study is to investigate the effect of exchange rate and oil price fluctuations on trade balance ...
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Introduction: Exchange rate and oil prices are the important factors for foreign trade in any country and even fluctuation in these variables will affect the economic and trade growth. The purpose of this study is to investigate the effect of exchange rate and oil price fluctuations on trade balance of Iran's agriculture sector with its 8 major trading partner over the period 1998 to 2017 and examine also the existence of the J Curve in these countries. To this end, linear and nonlinear ARDL models were utilized based on literature and tried to determine lung-run and short run effect of underling variables. Then, the results of linear and non-linear ARDL models were compared.Materials and Methods Methodology: Since eight countries, including the United Arab Emirates (UAE), Iraq, Afghanistan, Turkey, Korea, India, Germany and China are Iran's largest trading partners during 1998-2017, we focused on these countries. In this context, the model proposed by Oskoee et al. (2011) has been used to evaluate the impact of exchange rate and oil price fluctuations on agriculture trade balance. To capture the exchange rate and oil price fluctuations, the GARCH family models were applied (including EGARCHT, GARCH, SAGARCH, and NGARCH). Time series of exchange rate and oil price fluctuations which are extracted from GARCH models, are expected to be stationary. So, according to the empirical studies, the ARDL model is an appropriate model. However, both linear and nonlinear ARDL models were estimated. To specify trade balance equation, variables including Iran's GDP, GDP of eight trading partner countries, exchange rate, Oil prices fluctuations, exchange rate fluctuations and economic sanctions have been used. We used the ADF unit root test to check stationary of the variables.Results and Discussion: The estimated results of the GARCH family models show that the sum of the coefficients of α+β for Turkey, Iraq, India, China, Afghanistan, Germany, and Korea are 0.88, 0.94, 1, 0.92, and 0.82, respectively. As the sum of the coefficients must be between 0 and 1, the predicted fluctuations series of exchange rate are stationary and also the predicted fluctuations series is as well. After obtaining fluctuations series of exchange rate and oil price, the number of optimal lags should be determined in ARDL model. According to the FPE criterion, the optimal lag is two and according to the AIC and SBC the optimal one is three. Since the number of observations is low, the optimal lag number was selected two and the Linear and non-linear ARDL model was estimated. The results revealed that if Iran's GDP increased by 1%, the trade balance between Iran and Turkey would improve by 18.20% and this value for Iraq, Afghanistan, UAE, China, Germany, Korea would be 59.07, 8.40, 26.28, 91.17, 16.32, 0.16, 22.02 respectively. In the long run, if Turkey's GDP rises 1%, the trade balance between Iran and Turkey will improve 14.34%. Moreover, if GDP in Iraq, Afghanistan, UAE, Chinese, German, Korean climb by 1%, the trade balance reaches 38.31, 7.003, 10.41, 17.99, 0.39 24.6 respectively. If the exchange rate rises 1% in Iraq and Germany, the trade balance will improve roughly 26.9, 69.4 respectively. Escalating National currency in Turkey and India has reverse effects on the trade balance. In fact, as the exchange rate rises, imports from Turkey and India increased and this contradiction may be due to sanctions and economic conditions. In China and India, positive and negative fluctuation has positive and negative effects on the trade balance. Indeed, by increasing the positive exchange rate fluctuations, the trade balance would improve and with the negative exchange rate fluctuations (the exchange rate decline) the trade balance might worsen. In the nonlinear ARDL method, exchange rate fluctuations in India and China are positive and have significant effect, and it shows that there is a j-curve between Iran and these countries. Also separating exchange rate fluctuations in positive and negative groups can prove the existence of the j Curve.Conclusion: According to the results, the highest value of agricultural exports is related to Iraq and the least is to Korea. The UAE has the highest imports from Iran and Iraq has the lowest one. The co-integration test reveals that the underlining variables follow and influence each other in the long run. Based on previous studies and predicted signs for coefficients of the variables in the models, the non-linear ARDL model provides better results. The finding showed that GDP of 8 countries were positive and had significant effects and Iran's GDP was negative and significant in these eight countries. In the long run, an oil price fluctuation in Turkey, Afghanistan, Germany and India has positive and significant impact. In fact, as oil prices increase, the agricultural trade balance improves. In the short run, as oil prices rise, the agricultural trade balance would decline in countries such as Turkey, Germany and India and increase in Iraq and China. By dividing the exchange rate fluctuations into positive and negative parts, we conclude that positive exchange rate fluctuations in China and India have a positive effect on the trade balance and negative fluctuations have a negative effect on the trade Balance. The current study confirmed the existence of the J curve in India and China.
A. Mahmoodi; M. Jamaati Gashti; Gh.R. Yavari; M. Mehrara; S. Yazdani
Abstract
Estimating the Recreational Value of Rudkhan Castel Forest Park: Application of One and One-half Bound (OOHD) Dichotomous Choice Contingent Valuation
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Estimating the Recreational Value of Rudkhan Castel Forest Park: Application of One and One-half Bound (OOHD) Dichotomous Choice Contingent Valuation
M. Shabanzadeh-Khoshrody; A. Mahmoodi
Abstract
Introduction: Fruit and nuts, all kinds of vegetables, legumes and vegetable products, including commodity baskets with high proportion of nutritive value, are of great importance for policymakers of the agricultural sector. Therefore, the study of the conditions and factors affecting the demand for ...
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Introduction: Fruit and nuts, all kinds of vegetables, legumes and vegetable products, including commodity baskets with high proportion of nutritive value, are of great importance for policymakers of the agricultural sector. Therefore, the study of the conditions and factors affecting the demand for these goods can be predisposing advice to control the market and other factors affecting their use. But when it comes to the country at macro level of household demand, the aggregate commodity group beomes important. In cases where it is necessary to apply the fruits or vegetables as a function of household aggregation of a group of goods to be estimated, it is necessary a group of products with the scientific method to get aggregate and form a group variable as fruits or vegetables are included in the econometric model. Therefore, due to problems such as lack of access to information on each product separately, the high cost of collecting the data, missing observations, multicollinearity problem and limited degrees of freedom, we have to use grouping and composite commodities. But it is important that the correct grouping and consistent is made because of incorrect Aggregation, as specified in the error term appears on demand system estimated and Lead to biased estimation of the values of parameters and elasticity's, Which results in an incorrect picture of consumer behavior. Study of composite conditions of Agricultural commodities, as an important topic in economics, had been considered. Because mostly, access to disaggregate of the goods is not possible, and other problems such as multicollinearity occurs by examining the separation in the econometrics model. Study of composite conditions of Agricultural commodities, as an important topic in economics, had been considered. Due to its importance in the study, condition of Aggregation fruit and nuts, all kinds of vegetables and Bean (legumes) are using Generalized Composite Commodity Theorem (GCCT) is investigated.
Materials and Methods: Many efforts have been made by Economists to the necessary conditions for the validity of the Aggregation submitted. The first step was taken by Hicks with proposing a theory of composite commodities. Based on this theory, the goods can be placed in a group and form a single product, they must be equal to the ratio of their prices change over time. In other words, relative prices remain constant. Separability in production and Consumption theory, respectively by Leon Leontief and Sano also attempt to provide the necessary conditions have been aggregation among the goods. Based on this theory, inputs can be in a group that Marginal rate of substitution (MRS) between each pair of these inputs in a group independent from a separate group from the group. Blackorby and colleagues show that the dual condition of the license is limited to the aggregation of the products it provides. Lewbel (1996), the third method called generalized composite commodities theory (GCCT) is provided. Unlike the theory of Separability, do not apply any restrictions on the production technology, and it was for this reason that Lewbel was named the aggregation without separability. According to Lewbel theory, all products which those relative price index is independent group's index, can be classified in a group.Information needed as monthly statistics were collected from the central bank for the period 1383-1391.
Results and Discussion: The results of this study indicates that fruit and nuts, with respect to meeting the test requirements GCCT, fruit trees, cucurbit fruits and dried fruit can be considered as three aggregate groups; And furthermore, these three groups can be aggregated as a fruit and dried fruit group. Also Leaf vegetables, vegetables shrub, and bean (legumes) can be considered as aggregate of four groups, can be considered as four aggregate groups; furthermore, these four groups can be aggregate as a fruit ans dried fruit group; In addition with two kinds of fresh vegetables and vegetable products As a composite group can be considered.
Conclusion: Therefore economic studies have been conducted by using grouping by the Central Bank can be performed, using these Aggregated indices, and the results can be reliable and valid.
A. Parhizkari; H. Taghizade Ranjbari; M. Shokat Fadaei; A. Mahmoodi
Abstract
Introduction: Sustainable management of water resources is one of the most important disturbances of current century and many scientists and investigators have already started to pay attention to it from last decade and early 21st century. Iran is in the semi-arid region and thus disproportionate distribution ...
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Introduction: Sustainable management of water resources is one of the most important disturbances of current century and many scientists and investigators have already started to pay attention to it from last decade and early 21st century. Iran is in the semi-arid region and thus disproportionate distribution of water resources, so atmospheric precipitation and soil in the country, along with factors such as climate change, drought, environmental protection, ecological special situation, maintain the current pattern of population distribution provides various challenges. Industry and agriculture sectors create a regional balance tailored to the development needs on the one hand and focusing on distribution balanced and optimal management of water resources on the other hand. Transfer of water between river basins (watersheds, catchments), which is basically a hydrological category, different from the notion of transferring water over political boundaries, usually called transboundary water transfer. Interbasin water transfer usually implies large hydraulic engineering structures, conduits, canals, dams, pumping stations, and consequently shares the mistrust which meets large scale infrastructural solutions in water management, often criticized and opposed with the argument that one should first try to reduce water wastage, before embarking into costly investments. Inter-basin water transfer in fact is physical transfer of water from one basin to another basin. This transfer (Inter-basin water transfer) despite the elimination of shortcomings in the transmission destination areas, can the source of many changes in the cropping pattern, and farmers gross profit. Natural environment, migration, reduction of dependency to agriculture, small industries in the origin basins all requires assessments before the implementation of the water transfer projects. In Iran also water transfer from regions with high rainfall to arid regions has been performed by building the dam, canals, streams and aqueducts. Even today, many projects are implemented in Iran that water transfer project of Alamoutrood to Qazvin plain is one of the most important of these projects. According to reports of Regional Water Company of Qazvin province and the specifications of inter-basin water transfer project of Alamoutrood to Qazvin plain will be out from the farmers availability of Alamut region about 370 million cubic meters of irrigation water. This issue has the huge impacts on cropping pattern and farmers economic and livelihood condition in the origin basin (Alamout region). Therefore, in this study a hydrological-economic modeling system to analysis the effects of water transfer project of Alamoutrood to Qazvin plain on cropping pattern, farmers gross profit and economic value of irrigation water in the Alamut region (origin basin) was used.
Materials and Methods: Nowadays different methods to analysis of the issues related to the management of water resources and agriculture are used. One of the most important of these methods is mathematical programming that in recent years are in use to solve problems of water resource management sector and analysis of the agricultural policies. In this study a hydrological-economic modeling system consists of the Positive Mathematical Programming (PMP) and product function with Constant Elasticity of Substitution (CES) to analysis of the effects of inter-basin water transfer on land use, farmers income situation and economic value of irrigation water in the origin basin (Alamout region) was used. The first time PMP model developed by Howitt (1995) to calibrate agricultural supply models have been used to link biophysical and economic information in an integrated biophysical and economic modelling framework and to assess impacts of agricultural policies and scenarios. These models are also accepted for analysing the impact of water resources management policies and scenarios. PMP model used in this paper is a three-step procedure which in it a non-linear (Quadratic) cost function is calibrated to observed values of inputs applied in agricultural production. In the basic formulation, the first step is a linear program providing marginal values that are used in the second step to estimate the parameters for a non-linear cost function and a production function. In the third step, the calibrated production and cost functions are used in a non-linear optimisation program. The solution to this non-linear program calibrates to observed values of production inputs and output. The required data in this study are related to the cropping year of 2013-2014 of Qazvin province.
Results and Discussion: The obtained results in this study showed that inter-basin water transfer of Alamoutrood to Qazvin plain resulted in using 10 to 40 percent the supply of irrigation water leads to reduction of cropping pattern from 1/71 to 5/52 percent in Eastern Alamut Rodbar and from 2/17 to 6/32 percent in Western Alamut Rodbar. The above restriction after inter-basin water transfer of Alamoutrood to Qazvin plain leads to reduction of farmers gross profit from 2/58 to 8/21 percent in Eastern Alamut Rodbar and from 3/18 to 9/82 percent in Western Alamut Rodbar. In addition, the results of this study showed that inter-basin water transfer of Alamoutrood to Qazvin plain affects the economic value of each cubic meter of irrigation water in the origin basin (Alamout region) and leads to increase it from 3/23 to 31/1 percent in Eastern Alamut Rodbar and from 4/09 to 14/0 percent in Western Alamut Rodbar. Moreover, the results of this study showed that farmers irrigation water demand function in Alamout region changes after inter-basin water transfer of Alamoutrood to Qazvin plain and farmers are compelled to buy every cubic meter of irrigation water at higher price compared to the current situation (before inter-basin transfer of water). Increasing of the rural people emigration, urbanization development, reducing tourism and disturbance in the ecosystem origin basin are the potential consequences of inter-basin water transfer of Alamoutrood to Qazvin plain.
Conclusion: Implementation of Inter-basin water transfer projects is responsive to resolve the water shortage problems in destination basins in short-time periods and the situation in the long time will be repeated as before. Therefore, it is recommended that instead of inter-basin water transfer project from Alamoutrood to Qazvin plain (despite the high cost for implementation of project and creating the detrimental problems in the origin basin) other appropriate methods in the field of water resources management (such as equipping of lands to modern irrigation systems, use of deficit irrigation techniques, modification of cropping pattern by products with low water requirement, increase the irrigation efficiency by repairing and equipping of water transfer channels) to solve the problem of water shortage in the destination basin (Qazvin plain) to be used. The results of this study showed that inter-basin water transfer of Alamoutrood to Qazvin plain leads to reduction of cropping pattern and farmers’ gross profit. Therefore implementation of this project by considering of economic, social and environmental considerations in the origin basin (Alamout region) was recommended.
M. Shabanzadeh-Khoshrody; A. Mahmoodi; R. Esfanjari Kenari
Abstract
Introduction: Agriculture as one of old sectors of economy has been important role in the supply food for peoples and raw materials. Globalization causes rapid growth of world trade and reduces information and communications costs. Globalization and rapid growth of trade increases the potential benefits ...
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Introduction: Agriculture as one of old sectors of economy has been important role in the supply food for peoples and raw materials. Globalization causes rapid growth of world trade and reduces information and communications costs. Globalization and rapid growth of trade increases the potential benefits of trade for agriculture from various aspects. The potential benefits of trade for agriculture increases from three aspects. Direct increase in the domain of agricultural sector activities for competition in the global market results in the benefits of access to global markets. This is especially true in cases where there is comparative advantage and the indirect effects of increased global trade on non-agricultural sectors that cause the domestic demand for food change from qualitative and quantitative aspects, are the benefits of this event. However, during the process of globalization, how to influence prices in different markets, including the impact of world prices on domestic prices is an important issue in trade policy analysis. During this process domestic prices are directly related to world prices. With this approach, the main objective of this study is to examine the effect of world price transfers to domestic markets for sensitive and certain agricultural products in Iran during 1360-91.
Materials and Methods: To achieve this goal in this study, the Armington and the foreign currency elasticity of ten selected agricultural products in Iran including wheat, barley, rice, corn, soybean meal, vegetable oil (soybean and sunflower), sugar, eggs, poultry and beef, have been estimated and examined using Autoregressive Distribution lag Model (ARDL). In order to investigate speed of adjustment or in other words the speed of movement towards equilibrium, typically the error correction model (ECM) is used. Existence of cointegration or in other words, long term relationship between a set of economic variables provide the basis for the use of error correction model. In fact, error correction model links the short term fluctuations of the variables to their long term equilibrium values and shows adjustment speed and long term movement towards equilibrium.
Results and Discussion: The results of the present study show transfer of the world price fluctuations to the domestic market in the long run is more than in the short run. Moreover, if the products face a gap in domestic demand, and the local production is so limited that it cannot limit the import of that product, the products would be more affected by fluctuations in world prices. The results of ECM model reveal that the speed of adjustment towards long run equilibrium for most products is low such that if the shock enters the market of each product a long time is required for correcting the short-run and long-run imbalance equilibrium and bring it back to the first equilibrium.
Conclusion: The results showed that most of the crops under review (e.g. corn) face with the low gap of demand and the ability of domestic production in limiting the imports is low. Therefore, a significant portion of these products are imported from abroad. Given that the country is faced with a crisis of drought and water shortage problems, the price policies cannot eliminate this problem and help stabilize the market by encouraging increased production Thus, they lead to increased demand for imports. Under such circumstances, the only way to increase production in the country is enhancement of productivity in the agricultural sector. Of course, this is only possible in the long run. For products such as rice and meat the elasticity of substitution of domestic production with imports is small. In other words, if a policy is adopted that results in an increase in the price of these products, the share of these products of the total imports does not increase that much in comparison with other products. To support these products, policies can be used such as import tariffs in the short run. Since in the ECM model for the majority of products, the adjustment speed or the speed to move to the long-run equilibrium is slow, it is necessary to consider the harmful effects and consequences of shocks in the economy. Because if a shock is entered into the model, to correct the imbalance between short-run and long-run equilibrium and come back to long-run equilibrium needs a long time.
Keywords: Armington Elasticity, Autoregressive Distribution lags Model (ARDL), Currency Elasticity, Price Transfer
